Human Development Department - Wednesday, 9 March 2005
PARLIAMENT OF FIJI LIBRARY , RESEARCH, INFORMATION & ADVISORY SERVICE I S S U E S P A P E R S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T Prepared by:
Malakai Tadulala
Principal Research Officer Science, Technology & Environment Phone: 3305 811 Ext: 268 Volume 3 No. 1 (August 1998) This issue Paper has been prepared for general distribution to Senators and Members of the Parliament of Fiji. While great care is taken to ensure that the Paper is accurate and balanced, the Paper is written using information publicity available at the time of the production. Advice on legal policy issues contained in this Paper is provided for use in parliamentary debate and for related parliamentary purposes. This paper is not a professional legal opinion. Readers are reminded that the Paper is not an official parliamentary or Fiji government documents. The author is available to discuss the Papers content with Senators and Members and their staff but not with members of the public. |
TABLE OF CONTENTS Major Issues Summary Introduction What is Sustainable Development? Difference between Sustainable Development And Sustainable Human Development What is Sustainable Human Development (SHD)? The Suva Declaration on Sustainable Human Development Level of Achievements of Sustainable Human Development in the Pacific Human Poverty in the Pacific UNDP and Environment Environmental Issues in Fiji Islands Sustainable Development Bill, 1998 Key Features of the Bill Conclusion Bibliography Major Issues Summary: The concept of sustainable development has been discussed and debated widely in international forums and covered extensively in the literature. Yet, not many people are familiar with the concept. Considerable attention has been devoted to the subject of sustainable development by international bodies, in particular, a number of United Nation (UN) Organizations because of the attempt by these organizations to integrate environmental policies on development strategies of countries world-wide in both developed and developing countries. This integration process brings into focus the link and the interrelationship between parallel goals of economic growth and sustainable development of countries worldwide. The expression sustainable development defines a process of change which clearly illustrates the inter-dependency, the link or relationship between the concept of national development and the sustainable use of resources to meet the needs of present generations without comprising the needs of future generations. One of the outcomes of the Earth Summit which was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was the ratification by 178 countries, of Agenda 21. By placing emphasis on the integral relationship between the environment and development, Agenda 21 is considered to be one of the most comprehensive and potentially effective programmes of action ever sanctioned by the international community. Fiji participated in the Earth Summit and is a signatory to the Agenda 21 Agreement. Some key environmental issues which can be identified in the Pacific include: deforestation, land degradation, impacts of climatic change such as global warming and rising sea level, waste disposal, inland water pollution, depletion of coastal and marine resources, loss of biodiversity, loss of aquatic fish, loss of coral, depletion of energy resources, high population growth, rural and urban migration; and natural disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclones, tidal waves and earthquakes. A draft Sustainable Development Bill 1998 is being developed and circulated by the Government. This draft provides a blueprint for action to achieve sustainable development in Fiji in the years to come. The 60-page draft Bill is the result of a two year consultation process between public and private sector bodies and provides an integrated and consolidated legal framework for environmental and natural resources management in Fiji that is consistent with the objectives of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development for small islands states held recently in Barbados. Key challenges for sustainable development in all countries include limiting the potential for conflict between the freedom of individuals and the national interests and balancing the national interests with international obligations. Introduction: Sustainable development is one of the most recent, overused conceptual frameworks of this modern age. According to Olaf Langhelle in his article titled Sustainable Development: Exploring the Ethics of our Common Future, the concept has its origin in the 1980 World Conservation Strategy (WCS) Report jointly prepared by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (UCN), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). According to Langhelle, this report was one of the first to use the expression of sustainable development in its text, to express its concern on a number of environmental issues with regard to the protection and conservation of endangered species (both plants and animals) in the use of natural resources for development purposes by countries world wide. The report identified that one of the major causes of environmental damage in developing countries is due to the conduct of the poor people who depend heavily on the environment for survival. The vicious effects of poverty are a major contributing factor to environmental damage and overuse of both renewable and non-renewable resources which, if not appropriately addressed by relevant authorities, will lead to these resources being depleted and unable to support future generations. Since the publication and release of this WCS report, a number of other authors have extensively used the expression of sustainable development in their literature. This paper will focus only on the understanding of the concept of sustainable development, its relevance to the Pacific countries and how the Government of Fiji has decided to mainstream the concept into a workable legal framework and document. What is Sustainable Development? There is no clear-cut definition in the literature for the expression sustainable development. This is because the expression concerns a process of change with reference to a stock of resources or assets. But according to Langhelle, the standard definition of sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the poorest without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In that context, the expression of sustainable development tends to focus on two key concepts: the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the worlds poor to which overriding priority should be given, and the concept of limitations of the stock of environmental resources to meet present and future needs. Furthermore, according to Langhelle, the concept of sustainable development can be used in different ways. First, it can be used to describe a purely physical concept for a single resource. This usage relates to the sustainable use of the resource, in particular, a renewable resource, so that the use of the resource is less than the annual increase in the resource, otherwise the level of the physical stock of the resource will be depleted in no time. Secondly, it can be used to describe a physical concept for a group of resources or an ecosystem. This usage relates to the impact of a change in the level of stock of a particular resource on other resources in the surrounding environment ecosystem. The logging of forests that results in soil erosion, change in water yield, wild life habitat and species diversity in the environment is a good example of this process. And thirdly, the concept of sustainable development is often used in the literature to describe a socio-economic physical concept. This relates to the national vision or objective of a Government, to increase and improve upon the welfare of the society in a sustainable manner that is environmental friendly. It is this third usage that has brought international focus and recognition to the expression of sustainable development in the context of economic policies of countries worldwide. By and large, the satisfaction of human needs is seen as the major objective of national development. This is the goal of development. However, the qualification used in the expression that development must be sustainable, is a constraint imposed on the goal that each generation must be allowed to pursue its interests only in ways that do not undermine the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This requirement is regarded as the provision of sustainability. Hence the expression sustainable development that defines process of change which clearly illustrates the inter-dependency, the link or relationship between the concept of national development and the sustainable use of resources to meet the needs of present generations without comprising the needs of future generations. Sustainable Development and Sustainable Human Development The concepts of Sustainable Development (SD) and Sustainable Human Development (SHD) are very similar as explained by a number of authors and publications. Both concepts refer to the process of national development of countries that need to be sustained in the long term. However, sustainable development tends to focus more on environmental issues, its protection and conservation as the major core objectives of this process. On the other hand, Sustainable Human Development (SHD) is more people focused or more people centered process because the main objective here is to meet the needs of people (humans) including political, social, economic, cultural and religious with environmental concerns of less importance in the process. SHD is a much broader concept than SD because peoples needs are unlimited ranging from education, health, land, finance and many others. SHD is a concept that is used extensively by international organizations, especially UN organizations as well as international aid donors, to describe the mechanism to be used by those organizations and governments to improve the standard of living of people in society. What is Sustainable Human Development (SHD)? According to the 1999 Pacific Human Development Report recently released by the UNDP Regional Office in Suva, Sustainable Human Development is enlarging peoples choice by expanding human capabilities. The enhancement of human capabilities is considered the core objective of the process of sustainable human development. Furthermore, according to the UNDP report, there are basically three essential capabilities without which many peoples choices are not available and many opportunities remain inaccessible. These capabilities are that people want to need to: (a) lead long healthy lives; (b) be know ledged; and (c) have access to resources necessary for a decent standard of living. These are basic human requirements but Human Development requires many other conditions for people to lead satisfying and productive lives including political, economic and social opportunities, to be creative and productive and the enjoyment of self respect, empowerment and a sense of belonging to a community. And above all, income is one of the means of expanding peoples choice. On a much wider perspective, sustainable human development is also connected to various global issues such as human right, collective well-being, equity and sustainability. Human rights concern various rights that need to be enjoyed by people that are provided for them by their constitution. They include civil, political, social, cultural and economic rights, as well as land rights. Collective well-being refers to individual and collective interests of people in society that are intertwined such that human development requires strong social cohesion and equitable distribution of benefits of development. Equity concerns the need to have equity in the distribution of wealth, income and other opportunities and capabilities. And sustainability means meeting the needs of the present generations without comprising the opportunities and abilities of future generations. This is an important element of human development as it concerns the process of enlarging peoples choices today that should not be at the cost of people tomorrow. The process of widening peoples choices and the level of well being they achieve are therefore at the core of human development. This encompasses a wide range of human capabilities going beyond traditional development concerns such as education, health, to include issues such as participation, rights, gender and equity and culture. A draft Conceptual Paper on Sustainable Human Development was prepared by the Fiji Parliament Library in 1997 but it was never circulated to members of Parliament. The Suva Declaration on Sustainable Human Development Bringing this concept closer to home, in May 1994, fourteen Pacific Island Governments signed the famous Suva Declaration on Sustainable Human Development for the Pacific. These countries included Cook Islands, Federal States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall Islands, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Samoa and Fiji Islands. The Suva Declaration urged all Pacific countries to take prompt effective action to: (a) ensure human development concerns are considered and supported at the highest level of government policies, plans, programmes and in program monitoring, assessment and reporting; (b) enable most people to participate fully in socio-economic life and be owners of their development process; (c) build on the strengths of traditional systems, institutions and leaderships for community welfare, social order and environment management; (d) ensure that economic benefits are equally distributed for the continued improvement of peoples well-being; (e) promote a close relationship between government agents, NGOs, churches, traditional and indigenous institutions, community-based organizations, donors, and other concerned entities towards the formulation, implementation and evaluation of human development policies, plans, and programmes; and (f) support national sustainable human development initiatives through budgetary allocations, the restructuring of public expenditures and additional donor support. Overall, the Suva Declaration noted that the best ways to promote sustainable human development are: (a) to enhance the productivity of the rural and subsistence sector; (b) to promote participatory and community based development; (c) to improve access to land; (d) to expand employment and livelihood opportunities in the rural and subsistence sector; (e) to address inequality and emerging poverty; (f) to overcome disparities due to geographical location; (g) to promote advancement of women; and (h) to ensure youth involvement and development. The above provides some of the essential requirements for achieving sustainable human development the Pacific Island countries today. Achievements of Sustainable Human Development in the Pacific Pacific Human Development report clearly outlines the standard and level of Pacific Island countries, in terms of sustainable human development. The achievements of these countries are based on the calculation of the Human Development Index (HDI) of the countries concerned. The HDI is calculated based on the indicators such as adult literacy, gross school enrolment, life expectancy at birth and GDP per capita. According to the 1999 Pacific Human Development Report, the best for the Pacific is Palau, which is ranked 46 in the world. This is followed by the Cook Islands 62, Niue 70, Fiji Islands 101, Nauru 10, Tonga 107, Samoa 117, Tuvalu 118, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) 120, Marshall Islands 121, Kiribati 129, Vanuatu 140, Solomon Islands 147 and Papua New Guinea 164. The HDI values above show a large range of development conditions in the Pacific. There are three broad groups of countries. The small island states like Cook Islands, Palau, Niue, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Fiji ranked highest. The Micronesian states of Kiribati, Marshall Islands, FSM ranked in the middle and the large Melanesian countries including Vanuatu, Solomon Islands and ranked PNG ranked at the low end of the HDI and other scales. Human Poverty in the Pacific Another important concept that is linked to sustainable human development in the Pacific is poverty. Poverty means different things in different parts of the world. In general, poverty means that people do not have ready access to basic necessities such as clean air, water, land, shelter and clothing. Poverty in the Pacific is rare but some people are disadvantaged and deprived of easy access to basic human needs outlined above. And to gauge the level of poverty in the Pacific, the UNDP Report, has calculated a Human Poverty Index (HPI) for Pacific countries to determined the level of poverty for countries in the pacific. This HPI is based on the number of people not expected to survive to age 40 years, number of adults who are illiterate, people who do not have access to safe, clean water, health services and childrens weights. The country in the Pacific with the least poverty is Niue with a HPI of 4.8. this is followed by Tonga 5.9; Cooks Islands 6.1; Tuvalu 7.3; Tokelau 7.6; Fiji Islands 8.5; Palau 10.8; Nauru 12.1; Kiribati 12.6; Marshall Islands 19.5; FSM 26.7; Vanuatu 46.6; Solomon Islands 49.1; and PNG 52.2. The trend show by the HPI values above correlate closely with the HDI values for the respective Pacific Island countries. UNDP and Environment The UNDP focus on sustainable development issues originated from its adoption of the famous Agenda 21 during the Earth Summit meeting in Rio de Janero, Brazil in 1992, ratified by 178 countries around the world. Fiji also participated in this meeting and is a signatory to the Agenda 21 agreement. The Agenda 21 is a blueprint for action by Government to achieve sustainable development worldwide. By placing emphasis on the integral relationship between the environment and development, Agenda 21 is considered to be one of the most comprehensive and potentially effective programmes of action ever sanctioned by the international community. In the Pacific region, most countries, including Fiji are aware that a sustainable approach to resource management is the key to economic and human development. Many have institutionalized environmental planning and management and in the last few years, several countries have formulated National Environmental Management Strategies. In Fiji, UNDP is now supporting the development of several project proposals concerning the environment, which will be implemented once the Sustainable Development Bill is enacted by Parliament. UNDP regional office in Suva, manages a number of environmental projects under its overall programming themes of poverty alleviation environment, gender employment and sustainable livelihoods and governance. Regional projects such as those through the South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP) have a national focus on environmental protection and conservation in the Pacific region, including Fiji. Environmental Issues in Fiji Islands Key environmental issues identified in the Pacific region, including Fiji, include: (a) deforestation; (b) land degradation; (c) impacts of climatic change such as global warming and rising sea level; (d) waste disposal; (e) inland water pollution; (f) depletion of coastal and marine resources; (g) loss of biodiversity; (h) loss of aquatic fish; (i) loss of coral; (j) depletion of energy resources; (k) high population growth; (l) rural and urban migration; and (m) natural disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclones, tidal waves and earthquakes. Deforestation concerns the process of permanent depletion of forest cover by cutting of trees and logging of timber. It is one of the most serious and widespread environmental problems in the Pacific countries and Fiji is no exception. This process includes clearing of rest lands for shifting cultivation, permanent agriculture or settlements, including roads and construction. Possible consequences of deforestation are: (a) land degradation; (b) loss of biodiversity; (c) sedimentation of inland and marine waters; (d) soil erosion; (e) air pollution; (f) depletion of energy/resources. (g) land slides; and (h) increase food hazards. Apart from deforestation, another major problem in the Pacific is the depletion of ocean and coastal resources. Factors responsible for depletion of marine resources include (a) heavy metal concentration from mining activities; (b) disposal of sewerage waste; (c) oil spills; and (d) unsustainable population growth. In all island countries of the Pacific, the handling of waste disposal has become a difficult task due to: (a) lack of adequate lands for disposal sites; (b) lack of technical know how to improve collection efficiency; (c) industrial activities yielding non-cycling industrial wastes; and (d) high population growth resulting in the discharge of large scale domestic waste products. It is because of all environmental problems affecting our people that the Fiji Government is now keen to enact Sustainable Development legislation that will protect the environment so that we can enjoy clean air, water and environment in the years to come. Sustainable Development Bill 1998 The draft Sustainable Development Bill 1998 being developed and circulated by the Government provides a blueprint for action to achieve sustainable development in Fiji in the years to come. The 60- page draft Bill is the result of a two year consultation process between public and private sector bodies, aimed to address serious environmental problems in Fiji. The draft Bill provides an integrated and consolidated legal frame work for environmental and natural resource management in Fiji that consistent with the objectives of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development for small island states held recently in Barbados. The development of this Bill was decided in Cabinet in 1995 and the Asian development Bank was given the task to prepare the legal framework of this bill. During the two years consultation process of this Bill all interested group was involved of the discussion and formulation of this Bill including public and private sector bodies. The new legislation will establish many of the necessary legislative and administrative mechanisms to ensure that the Fiji achieves sustainable development in the future. In developing this Bill, the following factors were taken into account: (a) consolidation, integration and updating of over eighty pieces of existing environmental and resources management legislation; and (b) implementation and enforcement of over two dozen international agreements to which Fiji is a party. Creation of new legal framework for:- (a) environmental impact assessments; (b) pollution and waste management; (c) conservation and national parks management; (d) integrated natural resource management; (e) establishment of an effective enforcement and administrative; and (f) framework for the Department of Environment Key Features of the Bill Overall, the key features of the Draft Sustainable Development Bill include: Establishment of a National Council for Sustainable Development to oversee the implementations environmental friendly and sustainable policies in line with Fijis National Environmental Strategy outlined in its latest Development Plan. The Council comprises of 15 Permanent Secretaries of relevant Ministries with the Permanent Secretary of Environment as Chairman, Chief Executives of 5 statutory bodies and representatives from business communities, NGOs and academic community. The Minister for Environment must establish a Department of Environment and appoint its Director to administer the new legislation. The Minister is to appoint a Chief Environment Inspector and Assistant Inspectors, to inspect, supervise and enforce environmental and resource management requirements of the new legislation. The Department of Environment must establish an Environmental Register to record all inspection and environmental assessment required under the new law. Heads of every Ministry, Department and statutory body should establish an Environmental Management Unit to deal with environmental issues in their respective organisations. Every commercial and industrial organisation that employs over 100 workers must establish an Environmental Management Committee within their organization to deal with environmental issues. The Department of Environment must prepare a National State of Environmental Report every 5 years and the Report should outline the status of environment and resource management in Fiji. Every Ministry, Department or statutory body must prepare Sustainable Development Assurances Audits of their organisation after three years of the enforcement of this law and the Auditor-General must audit and clear such audit reports. Establishment of an Environmental, Impact Assessment Unit, consisting of an Administrator or Director and other persons appointed by the Secretary of the Ministry. The purpose of this Unit is to assess and examine every development activity to be undertaken by a Ministry, Department or statutory body and other development proposals or projects submitted by other organisations. Establishment of a Natural Resource Management Unit within the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries within two years of the enactment of the legislation for the function of natural resource inventory, information gathering and management. Production of a National Resource Management Plan within two years of the establishment of the national Resource Management Unit in the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests. The National Resource Management Plan is to be approved by the National Council and it provides the basis for processing development proposals as required under the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) process. The Minister can enforce Regulations to help administer this new law. Various forms of offences and penalties relating to pollution and other environmental related issues. Penalties include $10,000 or an imprisonment of 1 year for first offence relating to pollution $20,000 or two years for second offence, $50,000 for 5 years imprisonment for gross negligence and $100,000 or 10 years imprisonment for pollution due to reckless disregard for human lives. Apart from the Sustainable Development Bill, the Fiji Government has already enacted the Ozone Depletion Substance Act in 1997 to protect Fijis environment from excessive use of ozone depletion substances including fluorocarbons. The enactment of this Ozone Legislation is part of the obligation of the Fiji Government to the 1987 Montreal Protocol and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol on climatic change signed by 175 countries, including Fiji. Conclusion Sustainable Development is a very broad complex subject because the conceptual framework revolves around meeting the peoples needs and aspiration without any unsustainable changes to the environment. The two concepts of sustainable development are somewhat similar but differ in the core areas of focus, such that sustainable development deals with environmental issues as they relate to national development for countries whereas sustainable human development focuses on meeting the needs of the people. Both aim to ensure that the needs of future generations are not compromised by the present generations. Key challenges for sustainable development include limiting the potential for conflict between freedom of individuals and the national interest and balancing national interests with international obligations. Fiji has honored its commitment to international agreements such as Agenda 21, in enacting relevant legislation to protect the environment and ensure sustainable development in the country in the years to come. The enactment of the Draft Sustainable Development Bill is part of this process. BIBLIOGRAPHY UNDP.PacificcHuman Development Report. 1999. Suva. Fiji. Launghell.O, Sustainable Development: Exploring the Ethnics of our Common Future. International Political Science Review.Vol.20 No.2, 1999. Cooper.M, Setting Environmental Priorities. The CQ Researcher, Vol 9. No. 19, 1999. World Bank. Expanding the Measure of Wealth. Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development.. 1997. Government of Fiji. Department of Environment. Draft Sustainable Development Bill. 1998. Government of Fiji. Department of Legislature. Press Clipping Files. |